Volvo 940 Fluids and Chemicals

Fram Extended Life AMAM Concentrate is compatible with ANY antifreeze/coolant in ANY vehicle with aluminum or other cooling system metals. The formulas have a blend of long-lasting inhibitors to guard against temperature extremes and the effects of rust, corrosion, and premature water pump failure. FRAM Concentrate meets or exceeds ASTM D3306 and D4985 for corrosion protection for cars and light duty trucks, while providing reliable freeze-up & boil-over protection.

Product Features:

• Formulated to work with All Vehicles. Universally works with all fluid colors; All OAT, POAT, HOAT & IAT
• 5 Yr., 150,000 mile Extended life formula.
• Meets or exceeds ASTM D3306 & D4985 for corrosion protection.
• Concentrated formula. Must mix with high quality (distilled/deionized) water to the desired ratio. Can be used for top-off, complete drain and refill or flush and refill of the cooling system.

Prestone All Vehicles antifreeze+coolant (concentrate) is truly designed to work with all vehicles; all makes, models, years & fluid colors. It is designed to work with all new engines, while also being backwards compatible improving protection in all old

Product Features:

• Formulated to work with All Vehicles. Works with all fluid colors; All OAT, POAT, HOAT & IAT.
• Longer Engine Life Guarantee – 10 Yr., 300,000 mile Extended life formula.
• Includes patented Prestone CorGuard technology, the best advancement in cooling system parts protection that protects against rust and corrosion of all cooling system metals, including aluminum. Protection for 300,000 miles.
• Concentrate formula. Must mix with distilled to the desired mix ratio of EG & water. Can be used for top-off, complete drain and refill or flush and refill of the cooling system.

Mobil 1 advanced full synthetic motor oil 5W-30 helps to extend engine life for vehicles of all ages. Mobil 1 advanced synthetic motor oil is designed to deliver outstanding engine protection from the five factors that can damage engines over time and protect critical engine parts for up to 10,000 miles between oil changes (1) . Its uniform synthetic oil molecules reduce friction, helping to prevent deposits and sludge buildup. Mobil 1 helps to keep your engine running at lower temperatures. (2) This technologically advanced motor oil is proven to cool engine temperatures by over 10%. (3) Its formulation provides excellent internal engine heat protection (up to 500 degrees Fahrenheit), and low-temperature protection (to -30 degrees Fahrenheit), supporting quick cold-weather starting and ultra-fast protection. Mobil 1 advanced full synthetic motor oil meets ILSAC GF-6 standards to help provide low-speed pre-ignition (LSPI) and timing chain wear protection while keeping your engine clean and helping to improve your fuel economy. Mobil 1 advanced full synthetic motor oil 5W-30 also helps control oxidation to prevent oil breakdown and is recommended by ExxonMobil for all types of modern vehicles, including high-performance turbo-charged, and supercharged gasoline and diesel multi-valve fuel-injected engines found in passenger cars, SUVs, light vans, and light trucks. Mobil 1 is America’s leading synthetic motor oil brand at retail¿, recommended by car builders and experienced mechanics, and is the Official Motor Oil of NASCAR®. ( (1) Protects for up to 10,000 miles or 1 year, whichever comes first. To learn more about the Mobil 1 Limited Warranty, visit Mobil.US. (2) Compared to conventional oil. (3) Based on proprietary engine testing¿results may vary. (4) Source: The NPD Group/Retail Tracking Service/Dollar Sales/PCMO Full Synthetic/52 weeks ending February 25, 2023.)

Product Features:

• Mobil 1 advanced full synthetic motor oil 5W-30 helps to protect your engine from the five factors that can damage engines over time
• Helps protect critical engine parts for up to 10,000 miles between oil changes,(1) controlling oxidation to prevent oil breakdown and maintaining excellent viscosity
• Meets ILSAC GF-6 standards to help provide low-speed pre-ignition (LSPI) and timing chain wear protection while keeping your engine clean and helping to improve your fuel economy
• Mobil 1 is specially formulated to help remove sludge and lower engine temperatures
• Provides excellent internal engine heat protection (up to 500 degrees F) and low temperature protection (to -30 degrees F)
• Manufacturer Part Number: 124315
• Versatile Application: Recommended by ExxonMobil for all types of modern vehicles, including high-performance turbo-charged and supercharged gasoline and diesel multi-valve fuel-injected engines found in passenger cars, SUVs, light vans, and light trucks.

Mobil 1 ESP 5W-30 is an advanced full synthetic oil specially formulated for passenger car diesels that have the latest diesel particulate filters (DPFs) and gasoline catalytic converters (CATs). The proprietary full synthetic motor oil is designed to help deliver outstanding performance and protection in conjunction with potential fuel economy benefits. Mobil 1 ESP has active cleaning agents that help to reduce deposits and sludge buildup for a cleaner engine. Helps to reduce oil aging with outstanding oxidation stability for extended drain interval protection. Low ash, sulfur, and phosphorous content help to reduce particulate buildup in DPFs and reduce poisoning of CATs. Excellent low temperature capabilities for quick cold-weather starting and ultra-fast protection. Mobil 1 is America’s leading synthetic motor oil brand at retail(1), recommended by car builders and experienced mechanics, and is the Official Motor Oil of NASCAR. ((1)Source: The NPD Group/ Retail Tracking Service/ Dollar Sales/ PCMO Full Synthetic/ 52 weeks ending July 1, 2023)

Product Features:

• Mobil 1 ESP 5W-30 full synthetic oil is formulated for passenger car diesels with diesel particulate filters (DPFs) and gasoline catalytic converters (CATs)
• Low ash, sulfur, and phosphorous content help to reduce particulate build up in DPFs
• Active cleaning agents that help to reduce deposits and sludge buildup for a cleaner engine
• Helps to reduce oil aging with outstanding oxidation stability for extended drain interval protection
• Excellent low temperature capabilities for quick cold-weather starting and ultra-fast protection
• Manufacturer Part Number: 127568
• Outstanding Performance and Protection: Designed to deliver exceptional performance and protection, with potential fuel economy benefits.

Upgrading your motor oil to Valvoline Full Synthetic High Mileage with MaxLife Technology can help you increase the longevity of your car, truck or SUV with over 75,000 miles. It’s proven to protect your high-mileage motor against wear, friction, heat, and deposits – the leading causes of engine breakdown and expensive repairs. Our exclusive formulation goes beyond industry standards to protect your engine. It’s fortified with enhanced wear additives and friction-fighting agents to safeguard critical engine components, extra detergents to clean inside your engine, and premium seal conditioners to restore aging seals and prevent leaks. Superior viscosity modifiers and high-quality base oils help it perform exceptionally in both high and low temperatures. Engineered with ingenuity, tested with tenacity, and proven with purpose, our formula was innovated in America with a century and a half of hands-on experience from the original motor oil brand.

Product Features:

• Enhanced maxlife technology prevents engine breakdown in extreme conditions with 50% better wear protection than the industry standard
• Treat and prevent leaks with premium seal conditioners to keep oil out of places it shouldn’t be
• 25% extra defense against deposits, sludge, corrosion and rust via interior-cleansing detergents
• Extreme temperature protection through our high-quality base oils and superior viscosity modifiers
• Meets or exceeds all requirements of ilsac gf-6a, api sp, api sn with sn plus, api sn
• Extends engine life: Valvoline Full Synthetic High Mileage with MaxLife Technology is designed to extend the life of higher mileage vehicles, providing superior protection against wear, friction, heat, and deposits – the leading causes of engine breakdown

European engines need a premium motor oil designed to help them last. Valvoline European Vehicle Full Synthetic Motor Oil. It’s the motor oil specially developed to extend the life of European-made gasoline and diesel engines. Our exclusive formula uses top wear additives, premium antioxidants and added detergents to fight wear, resist oil breakdown and defend against deposits better than industry standards. Its exceptional range of temperature protection ensures your engine will be defended when the weather and road conditions get tough. This superior level of protection makes it the best choice for most Audi, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Porsche, and VW vehicles. Engineered with ingenuity, tested with tenacity, and proven with purpose, our formula was innovated in America with a century and a half of hands-on experience from the original motor oil brand.

Product Features:

• Advanced protection in european vehicles agains the four main causes of engine breakdown: wear friction heat and deposits
• Extra wear protection vs. industry and oem standards with advanced anti-wear additives
• Superior performance for european gasoline and diesel engines
• Exceptional high/low temperature protection defends your engine no matter the climate or driving conditions
• Meets or exceeds all requirements of api sp, acea a3/b3, a3/b4, mb 229.5, 229.3, &226.5, vw 50200/50500 & 50501, bmw ll-01 & ll-14fe+, porche a40, volvo 95200356, renault rn0700 & rn0710, psa b71 2296, and chrysler ms-12633/ ms-10725
• Superior engine sludge and varnish protection for European-made gasoline and diesel engines.

Upgrading your motor oil to Valvoline Full Synthetic High Mileage with MaxLife Technology can help you increase the longevity of your car, truck or SUV with over 75,000 miles. It’s proven to protect your high-mileage motor against wear, friction, heat, and deposits – the leading causes of engine breakdown and expensive repairs. Our exclusive formulation goes beyond industry standards to protect your engine. It’s fortified with enhanced wear additives and friction-fighting agents to safeguard critical engine components, extra detergents to clean inside your engine, and premium seal conditioners to restore aging seals and prevent leaks. Superior viscosity modifiers and high-quality base oils help it perform exceptionally in both high and low temperatures. Engineered with ingenuity, tested with tenacity, and proven with purpose, our formula was innovated in America with a century and a half of hands-on experience from the original motor oil brand.

Product Features:

• Enhanced maxlife technology prevents engine breakdown in extreme conditions with 50% better wear protection than the industry standard
• Treat and prevent leaks with premium seal conditioners to keep oil out of places it shouldn’t be
• 25% extra defense against deposits, sludge, corrosion and rust via interior-cleansing detergents
• Extreme temperature protection through our high-quality base oils and superior viscosity modifiers
• Meets or exceeds all requirements of ilsac gf-6a, api sp, api sn with sn plus, api sn
• MaxLife High Mileage Synthetic Engine Oil is specially designed for engines with over 75,000 miles, providing ultimate protection against wear, friction, heat, and deposits.

Prestone® MAX European Vehicles Power Steering Fluid (PSF) + Stop Leak maximizes and increases system life + the power to stop leaks. Stop Leak additives renew, restore and condition seals in the power steering system. These seals harden and shrink over time which are the likely cause of leaks. This formula is also great at preventing leaks by rejuvenating seals before they leak. This synthetic fluid is designed with 2X Anti-wear System Protection, which means more protection against pump failure, squeals and clogs. 100,000 mile fluid life, 2X more than conventional fluid, extends the time between replacement. This fluid is formulated for European vehicle manufacturers: Audi, BMW, Jaguar, Mini, Porsche, Mercedes, Saab, Volvo, Volkswagen and others. Many cars 2006 and newer use synthetic based fluids for longer life and better protection. Conventional and synthetic fluids can be mixed but performance and replacement intervals are reduced by the conventional fluid.

Product Features:

• 100,000 Mile Fluid Life. Synthetic Formula for longer life and more protection
• MAX + Stop Leak. Stop Leak Additives to prevent and stop power steering system leaks.
• For use in European vehicle manufacturers: Audi, BMW, Jaguar, Mini, Porsche, Mercedes, Saab, Volvo, Volkswagen and others
• 2X Anti-Wear Protection for enhanced System Life vs. conventional fluid. More protection against pump failure, squeals and clogs

Prestone® DOT 4 Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid delivers enhanced performance vs. DOT standards, benefitting all vehicles calling for DOT 4. This synthetic fluid starts with a higher dry boiling point than the DOT minimum standard to protect against overheating, brake fade and performance decline due to water absorption. This extended life (50,000 mile) fluid is also formulated to prevent corrosion of all metals within the braking system. This formula is safe to use in all DOT 4 braking systems (ABS, disc or drum) and can mix with any DOT 4 fluid. It is recommended to only use the DOT fluid specified for your car, as using a different DOT product can affect the boiling point or replacement interval if the wrong fluid is used.

Product Features:

• 50,000 Mile Fluid Life
• Prevent Overheating & Brake Fade with High Grade Formula*
• Protects against performance decline due to water absorption. Prevents corrosion of all metals within the braking system.
• Synthetic, Extended Fluid Life Formula

Prestone® DOT 4 Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid delivers enhanced performance vs. DOT standards, benefitting all vehicles calling for DOT 4. This synthetic fluid starts with a higher dry boiling point than the DOT minimum standard to protect against overheating, brake fade and performance decline due to water absorption. This extended life (50,000 mile) fluid is also formulated to prevent corrosion of all metals within the braking system. This formula is safe to use in all DOT 4 braking systems (ABS, disc or drum) and can mix with any DOT 4 fluid. It is recommended to only use the DOT fluid specified for your car, as using a different DOT product can affect the boiling point or replacement interval if the wrong fluid is used.

Product Features:

• 50,000 Mile Fluid Life
• Prevent Overheating & Brake Fade with High Grade Formula
• Protects against performance decline due to water absorption. Prevents corrosion of all metals within the braking system.
• Synthetic, Extended Fluid Life Formula

Prestone® MAX DOT 4 Motor Vehicle Brake Fluid is our highest grade formula, maximizing performance vs. DOT standard. Prestone MAX is our best brake fluid at protecting against overheating and brake fade. With 75,000 mile fluid life, our longest life fluid has 1.5X more miles between replacement than regular Prestone DOT 3. Prestone MAX has superior performance in severe braking conditions when compared to regular Prestone DOT 4, which means even more piece of mind about the braking system. This synthetic fluid starts with our highest dry boiling point giving our best protection against performance decline due to water absorption. Prestone MAX DOT 4 is safe to use in all DOT 4 braking systems, ABS, disc or drum, and can mix with any DOT 4 fluid. Mixing Prestone MAX with other fluids will lower the performance rating for miles and boil points, for best results replace completely with Prestone MAX DOT 4. It is recommended to only use the DOT fluid specified for your car. Using a different DOT product can affect the boiling point or replacement interval if the wrong fluid is used.

Product Features:

• 75,000 Mile Fluid Life
• Prevent Overheating & Brake Fade with Our Highest Grade Formula. Prevents corrosion of all metals within the braking system.
• Superior Protection in Extreme Braking Conditions
• Synthetic, Long Life Formula – 1.5X Longer than regular Prestone DOT 4

Only compatible with R134a refrigerant; Tools required for installation; Plastic bottle; Universal applications

Only compatible with R134a refrigerant; Tools required for installation; Plastic bottle; Universal applications

Product Features:

• Reduces heat & wear
• Eliminates TQ converter shudder & clutch pack chatter
• For all automatic transmissions & 4×4 transfer cases

Mobil 1 Synthetic ATF is a multi-vehicle, fully synthetic automatic transmission fluid that helps to improve overall transmission durability and cleanliness. Has exceptional thermal and oxidation stability and long-term frictional properties that help to improve and extend transmission efficiency, smooth shifting performance, and fuel economy. Mobil 1 ATF provides excellent low-temperature fluidity to promote reliable lubrication at temperatures down to -51C, and exceptional shear stability to help supports viscosity retention under the most severe heavy-duty, high-temperature operating conditions. Compatibile with mineral ATF fluids and all common seal materials to help provide excelent leakage control and reduce concern in top-off emergencies. Meets or exceeds the requirements of JASO 1-A and Ford MERCON V.

Product Features:

• Multi-vehicle, fully synthetic automatic transmission fluid that helps to improve overall transmission durability and cleanliness
• Exceptional thermal and oxidation stability to improve and extend transmission efficiency, smooth shifting performance, and fuel economy
• Excellent high and low-temperature fluidity to help support viscosity retention under extreme, heavy-duty operating conditions
• Compatibile with mineral ATF fluids and all common seal materials to help provide excelent leakage control
• Meets or exceeds the requirements of JASO 1-A and Ford MERCON V
• Manufacturer Part Number: 112980

Castrol Transmax High Mileage is specially formulated for transmissions with over 75,000 miles to deliver superior performance for maximum transmission life. It features additional seal conditioners to help stop leaks and cleaning agents to reduce varnish and deposit formation. It also protects against clutch wear and restores smooth shifting and can be used in a wide variety of specifications including DEXRON®-IIIH, MERCON® and JASO-1A.

Product Features:

• Additional seal conditioners help stop leaks.
• Extra cleaning agents reduce varnish and sludge formation.
• Protects against clutch wear and restores smooth shifting.
• Recommended for use in new & older vehicles that require:

FRAM DEX III/MERC ATF is formulated for older model Ford and General Motors  vehicles requiring MERCON®, DEXRON-I®, DEXRON-II® and DEXRON-III®. It is also  recommended for transmissions, power steering systems, and hydraulic systems  requiring a DEXRONIII® or Caterpillar TO-2 fluid. FRAM DEX III/MERC ATF may also  be used in compressors, pumps, and hydraulic systems. FRAM DEX III-H/M ATF is  recommended for use in all transmissions, hydraulic systems, and power steering units  manufactured by American, European, Korean, Japanese and other manufactures from  around the world specifying DEXRON®III H/Mercon® and earlier DEXRON®/Mercon® type transmission fluids.

Product Features:

• Good foam and corrosion prevention
• Safe for seals
• Promotes smooth shifting
• ALWAYS REFER TO YOUR VEHICLES OPERATING MANUAL TO SELECT THE CORRECT GRADE FLUID FOR YOUR TRANSMISSION
• TRANSMISSION FLUIDS ALSO APPLICABLE IN POWER STEERING UNITS; CHECK OWNERS’ MANUAL

Castrol Transmax ATF/CVT Universal is a technologically advanced full-synthetic formulation designed to deliver excellent performance in most of the traditional stepped automatic transmissions and Continuously Variable Transmissions currently in use. It is also suitable for use in hybrids.

Product Features:

• Coverage of over 300 specs/95% of vehicles in operation
• Broad scope of vehicle applications improves workshop efficiency and inventory management
• Enhanced friction durability for smooth transmission performance
• Superior high temperature protection to effectively resist oxidation

FRAM DEX III/MERC ATF is formulated for older model Ford and General Motors  vehicles requiring MERCON®, DEXRON-I®, DEXRON-II® and DEXRON-III®. It is also  recommended for transmissions, power steering systems, and hydraulic systems  requiring a DEXRONIII® or Caterpillar TO-2 fluid. FRAM DEX III/MERC ATF may also  be used in compressors, pumps, and hydraulic systems. FRAM DEX III-H/M ATF is  recommended for use in all transmissions, hydraulic systems, and power steering units  manufactured by American, European, Korean, Japanese and other manufactures from  around the world specifying DEXRON®III H/Mercon® and earlier DEXRON®/Mercon® type transmission fluids.

Product Features:

• Good foam and corrosion prevention
• Safe for seals
• Promotes smooth shifting
• ALWAYS REFER TO YOUR VEHICLES OPERATING MANUAL TO SELECT THE CORRECT GRADE FLUID FOR YOUR TRANSMISSION
• TRANSMISSION FLUIDS ALSO APPLICABLE IN POWER STEERING UNITS; CHECK OWNERS’ MANUAL

Automatic transmission fluid is a technologically advanced, low viscosity formulation specially designed to deliver performance and maximum fuel efficiency for modern automatic transmissions.

Product Features:

• Full Synthetic, low viscosity formulation
• OEM approved and licensed by Ford (MERCON® LV) and GM (DEXRON® -VI)
• Low viscosity formula for maximum fuel efficiency in modern automatic transmissions
• Enhanced friction durability for smooth transmission performance
• Superior high temperature protection to effectively resist oxidation
• Unsurpassed protection against copper corrosion
• Industry Specifications and OEM Approvals: JASO-1A
• Licensed and approved for use in: All GM vehicles (DEXRON®-VI, All previous DEXRON®); All Ford vehicles which specify Mercon® LV

Valvoline MaxLife Multi-Vehicle Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) is a full-synthetic formulation with advanced additives to prevent the major causes of transmission breakdown and help extend transmission life.  Developed to help prevent leaks, maximize transmission performance, reduce transmission wear, and maintain smooth shifting longer than conventional fluids. It is suitable for use in a broad range of ATF applications including most Ford, GM, Toyota, Honda, Nissan, Hyundai, BMW, Mercedes, Volvo, VW & Audi.

Product Features:

• Formulated with full-synthetic base stocks and advanced additive technology to meet the challenging demands of automatic transmissions.
• Long life friction modifiers help improve smooth shifting, eliminate slippage and shudder, prevent clutch wear and improve drivability longer than conventional fluids
• High-performance seal conditioners maintain and preserve the elasticity of seals to help prevent leaks in high mileage transmissions
• Developed with anti-wear technology to help improve transmission durability
• Advanced additives to provide better oil flow at low temperatures and greater film protection at higher temperatures
• Suitable for 95% of traditional ATFs including Dex/Merc, Mercon LV & Mercon V

FRAM Global ATF is formulated to meet the fluid needs of a broad range of automatic  transmissions. Using advanced additive technology and base fluids, it is suitable for service fill of  many transmissions manufactured by North American, Asian, and European OEMs. FRAM  Global ATF provides oxidation and thermal stability, friction control, load-carrying ability, corrosion  and wear protection. It helps protect against the formation of sludge, varnish and foam. FRAM Global ATF has exceptional low temperature flow properties and enhanced protection  against viscosity breakdown at high temperatures. It also has exceptional oxidation and thermal  stability, resulting in maximum service life.

Product Features:

• Maintains friction control for smooth shift action and protection against shudder
• Retains high temperature viscosity resulting in maximum oil film thickness and  excellent wear
• Controls sludge, corrosion, and wear of gears
• ALWAYS REFER TO YOUR VEHICLES OPERATING MANUAL TO SELECT THE CORRECT GRADE FLUID FOR YOUR TRANSMISSION
• TRANSMISSION FLUIDS ALSO APPLICABLE IN POWER STEERING UNITS; CHECK OWNERS’ MANUAL

Full-Synthetic; Heavy Duty Automatic Transmission; BP Autran Syn-295 is a full-synthetic, heavy duty automatic transmission fluid approved for use under Allison TES-295. It is formulated to maintain its stability, even under the most severe operating conditions.

Product Features:

• Formulated with high viscosity index 100% synthetic base fluids and specific additives in order to exceed Allison requirements and provide outstanding wear protection
• Keeps transmissions cooler, offering excellent shear stability, low oxidation and high heat capacity
• Provides superior high/low temperature performance due to high VI synthetic base fluids and has excellent corrosion and foaming resistance
• BP Autran Syn-295 also has an Allison TES-468 approval for use in Allison Hybrid Electric Drive Transmissions
• Other OEM approvals include Allison C-4, Voith and ZF transmissions
• BP Autran Syn-295 is an ideal transmission fluid for light duty application vehicles, such as:
• Inter/intra-city buses & school buses
• Emergency vehicles
• Delivery trucks & vans
• Recreational vehicles & motor homes
• Refuse vehicles
• On/off-highway vehicles

FRAM DEX III/MERC ATF is formulated for older model Ford and General Motors  vehicles requiring MERCON®, DEXRON-I®, DEXRON-II® and DEXRON-III®. It is also  recommended for transmissions, power steering systems, and hydraulic systems  requiring a DEXRONIII® or Caterpillar TO-2 fluid. FRAM DEX III/MERC ATF may also  be used in compressors, pumps, and hydraulic systems. FRAM DEX III-H/M ATF is  recommended for use in all transmissions, hydraulic systems, and power steering units  manufactured by American, European, Korean, Japanese and other manufactures from  around the world specifying DEXRON®III H/Mercon® and earlier DEXRON®/Mercon® type transmission fluids.

Product Features:

• Good foam and corrosion prevention
• Safe for seals
• Promotes smooth shifting
• ALWAYS REFER TO YOUR VEHICLES OPERATING MANUAL TO SELECT THE CORRECT GRADE FLUID FOR YOUR TRANSMISSION
• TRANSMISSION FLUIDS ALSO APPLICABLE IN POWER STEERING UNITS; CHECK OWNERS’ MANUAL

Formulated to meet the specific requirements of Toyota, Lexus, and Scion vehicles equipped with conventional (non-CVT) transmissions that require the use of ATF T-IV. Recommended for service-fill in all Toyota, Lexus, and Scion automatic transmissions whe

Product Features:

• Excellent resistance to oxidation and thermal breakdown provide long fluid life and extended protection
• Precisely engineered frictional characteristics guarantee smooth shifting and outstanding anti-shudder performance
• Provides superior cleanliness, maintaining the transmission free of sludge and varnish deposits
• Excellent seal compatibility and conditioning reduces risk of fluid leaks due to seal shrinkage, hardening and cracking
• Advanced anti-wear technology provides maximum protection to gears and bearings
• Excellent seal compatibility and conditioning reduces risk of fluid leaks due to seal shrinkage, hardening and cracking